Investigating the Potential of Phenolic Compounds and Carbohydrates as Acceptor Substrates for Levansucrasse-Catalyzed Transfructosylation Reaction.

This study characterizes the acceptor specificity of levansucrases (LSs) from Gluconobacter oxydans (LS1), Vibrio natriegens (LS2), Novosphingobium aromaticivorans (LS3), and Paraburkholderia graminis (LS4) using sucrose as fructosyl donor and selected phenolic compounds and carbohydrates as acceptors. Overall, V. natriegens LS2 proved to be the best biocatalyst for the transfructosylation of phenolic compounds. More than one fructosyl unit could be attached to fructosylated phenolic compounds. The transfructosylation of epicatechin by P. graminis LS4 resulted in the most diversified products, with up to five fructosyl units transferred. The acceptor specificity of LS towards phenolic compounds and their transfructosylation products were found to greatly depend on their chemical structure: number of phenolic rings,  reactivity of hydroxyl groups and  presence of aliphatic chains or methoxy groups. As for carbohydrates, the transfructosylation yield was more dependent on the acceptor type than LS source. The highest yield of fructosylated-trisaccharides  was Erlose from the transfructosylation of maltose catalyzed by LS2, with production reaching 200 g/L. LS2 was more selective towards the transfructosylation of phenolic compounds and carbohydrates, while reactions catalyzed by LS1, LS3 and LS4 also produced  fructooligosaccharides. This study shows the high potential for the application of LSs in the glycosylation of phenolic compounds and carbohydrates.

Antioxidant and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitory Activity of Faba Bean-Derived Peptides After In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion: Insight into Their Mechanism of Action.

Faba bean flour, after in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, showed important antioxidant and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activities. In the present study, 11 faba bean- derived peptides were synthesized to confirm their bioactivities and provide a deeper understanding of their mechanisms of action. The results revealed that 7 peptides were potent antioxidants, namely, NYDEGSEPR, TETWNPNHPEL, TETWNPNHPE, VIPTEPPH, VIPTEPPHA, VVIPTEPPHA, and VVIPTEPPH. Among them, TETWNPNHPEL had the highest activity in the ABTS (EC50 = 0.5 ± 0.2 mM) and DPPH (EC50 = 2.1 ± 0.1 mM) assays (p < 0.05), whereas TETWNPNHPE had the highest activity (p < 0.05) in the ORAC assay (2.84 ± 0.08 mM Trolox equivalent/mM). Synergistic and/or additive effects were found when selected peptides (TETWNPNHPEL, NYDEGSEPR, and VVIPTEPPHA) were combined. Four peptides were potent ACE inhibitors, where VVIPTEPPH (IC50 = 43 ± 1 µM) and VVIPTEPPHA (IC50 = 50 ± 5 µM) had the highest activity (p < 0.05), followed by VIPTEPPH (IC50 = 90 ± 10 µM) and then VIPTEPPHA (IC50 = 123 ± 5 µM) (p < 0.05). These peptides were noncompetitive inhibitors, as supported by kinetic studies and a molecular docking investigation. This study demonstrated that peptides derived from faba beans have multifunctional bioactivities, making them a promising food-functional and nutraceutical ingredient.

Improved in vitro gastrointestinal digestion protocol mimicking brush border digestion for the determination of the Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) of different food matrices.

The Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) is the new gold standard method for the assessment of protein nutritional quality. The DIAAS is evaluated with in vivo models, that are complex, constraining and costly. There is still no established method to assess it in vitro. In this study, we proposed to add a jejunal-ileal digestion phase to the standardized in vitro gastrointestinal digestion protocol developed by the International Network of Excellence on the Fate of Food in the Gastrointestinal Tract (INFOGEST protocol) to mimic brush border digestion and to enable DIAAS assessment in vitro in a more physiologically relevant manner. This jejunal-ileal digestion phase was performed with a porcine intestinal aminopeptidase as an alternative to brush border membrane extract, which is more difficult to obtain in a standardized way. This modified INFOGEST protocol was applied to various food matrices (faba bean, pea and soy flours, whey protein isolate and caseins) and the results were compared to published in vivo data to assess the model's physiological relevance. The addition of the jejunal-ileal digestion phase lead to a significant (p < 0.05) increase of 31 and 29 % in free and total amino acid digestibility, respectively, and of 83 % on average for the in vitro DIAAS values for all food matrices. Although the in vitro DIAAS remained underestimated compared to the in vivo ones, a strong correlation between them was observed (r = 0.879, p = 0.009), stating the relevance of this last digestion phase. This improved digestion protocol is proposed as a suitable alternative to evaluate the DIAAS in vitro when in vivo assays are not applicable.

Investigation of the nutritional quality of raw and processed Canadian faba bean (Vicia faba L.) flours in comparison to pea and soy using a human in vitro gastrointestinal digestion model.

Faba bean is an ancient legume that is regaining interest due to its environmental and nutritional benefits. Very little is known on the protein quality of the new faba bean varieties. In this study, the digestibility and the Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) of the protein quality of three Canadian faba bean varieties (Fabelle, Malik and Snowbird) were compared to pea and soy using the harmonized in vitro digestion procedure developed by the International Network of Excellence on the Fate of Food in the Gastrointestinal Tract (INFOGEST). The impact of boiling on the nutritional quality of faba bean flours was also ascertained. Protein content in faba bean (28.7-32.5%) was lower than defatted soy (56.6%) but higher than pea (24.2%). Total phenolics and phytate content were higher (p < 0.05) in faba bean (2.1-2.4 mg/g and 11.5-16.4 mg/g respectively) and soy (2.4 mg/g and 19.8 mg/g respectively) comparatively to pea (1.3 mg/g and 8.9 mg/g). Trypsin inhibitor activity was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in soy (15.4 mg/g) comparatively to pea (0.7 mg/g) and faba bean (0.8-1.1 mg/g). The digestibility of free amino acids of raw faba bean flours ranged from 31 to 39% while the digestibility of total amino acids ranged from 38 to 39%. The in vitro Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (IV-DIAAS) of raw faba bean flours ranged from 13 to 16 (when calculated based on free amino acid digestibility) to 32-38 (when calculated based on total amino acid digestibility) and was in a similar range to pea (13-31) and soy (11-40). Boiling modified the protein electrophoretic profile and decreased trypsin inhibitor activity (30-86% reduction), while total phenolics and phytate content were unaffected. The IV-DIAAS significantly decreased in all boiled legumes, possibly due to an increased protein aggregation leading into a lower protein digestibility (18-32% reduction). After boiling, the nutritional quality of faba bean was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than soy, but higher than pea. Our results demonstrate that faba bean has a comparable protein quality than other legumes and could be used in similar food applications.

Nutritional composition and consumer acceptance of tomato paste fortified with palm weevil larvae (Rhynchophorus phoenicis Fabricius) in the Ashanti region, Ghana.

Edible insects, such as palm weevil larvae, have been promoted as an alternative source of nutrients in developing countries for their nutritional benefits, cost-effective rearing, and yearly availability. Unfortunately, consumer acceptance remains a barrier to their utilization. A supplemental palm weevil larvae and tomato paste were developed as part of efforts to understand whether incorporating edible insects into staple foods could help overcome this barrier. Palm weevil larvae flour and tomato paste were mixed in three formulations that had 8, 15, and 30% of palm weevil larvae flour. Samples were subjected to proximate and mineral content analyses and sensory evaluation. Among the blends, tomato paste containing 30% palm weevil larvae had the highest protein, fat, and total solids content as compared to unfortified tomato paste. Iron and zinc levels also increased with increasing levels of palm weevil larvae flour. Carbohydrate and crude fiber concentrations of the samples, however, decreased with increasing fortification levels. The overall acceptance and willingness to purchase fortified tomato paste as determined by sensory evaluation was high for all samples and increased with increasing knowledge about palm weevil larvae's nutritional benefits. Overall acceptance and willingness to purchase fortified tomato paste were significantly dependent on the samples' color and consumers' overall liking of the products. Tomato paste fortified with palm weevil larvae can provide a complementary source of iron for Ghanaians.

Investigation of biocatalytic production of lactosucrose and fructooligosaccharides using levansucrases and dairy by-products as starting materials.

Selected levansucrases (LSs) were investigated for their ability to catalyze the transfructosylation of lactose/sucrose into lactosucrose and fructooligosaccharides (FOSs). Additionally, dairy by-products, including whey permeate (WP) and milk permeate (MP), were assessed for their effectiveness as lactose sources. LSs from Gluconobacter oxydans (LS1), Vibrio natriegens (LS2), Novosphingobium aromaticivorans (LS3), and Burkholderia graminis (LS4) were utilized in three transfructosylation reactions that combined sucrose with either lactose, WP, or MP. All LSs demonstrated a higher transfructosylation activity than hydrolytic one, except for V. natriegens LS2 in the presence of sucrose and MP/sucrose. Furthermore, the bioconversion efficiency of lactose/sucrose into lactosucrose and FOSs exhibited varying time courses and end-product profiles. Both the acceptor specificity of LS and the thermodynamic equilibrium of its reaction modulated the end-product profile. V. natriegens LS2 resulted in the highest lactosucrose production of 328 and 251 g/L with lactose/sucrose and WP/sucrose, respectively. Our results revealed the potential of LS-catalyzed transfructosylation for the biocatalytic production of both lactosucrose and FOSs from abundant biomasses.

Assessment of Protein Nutritional Quality of Novel Hairless Canary Seed in Comparison to Wheat and Oat Using In Vitro Static Digestion Models.

Hairless canary seed (Phalaris canariensis L.) is a novel true cereal that is now approved for human consumption in Canada and the United States. This true cereal grain has higher protein content (22%) than oat (13%) and wheat (16%) and represents a valuable source of plant proteins. Assessment of canary seed protein quality is therefore essential to evaluate its digestibility and ability to provide sufficient amounts of essential amino acids for human requirements. In this study, the protein nutritional quality of four hairless canary seed varieties (two brown and two yellow) were evaluated in comparison to oat and wheat. The assessment of anti-nutrients contents (phytate, trypsin inhibitor activity, and polyphenols) showed that brown canary seed varieties had the highest content in phytate and oat the highest in polyphenols. Trypsin inhibitor level was comparable among studied cereals, but slightly higher in the brown canary seed Calvi variety. In regard to protein quality, canary seed had a well-balanced amino acid profile and was particularly high in tryptophan, an essential amino acid normally lacking in cereals. The in vitro protein digestibility of canary seeds as determined by both the pH-drop and INFOGEST (international network of excellence on the fate of food in the gastrointestinal tract) protocols appears slightly lower than wheat and higher than oat. The yellow canary seed varieties showed better overall digestibility than the brown ones. For all studied cereal flours, the limiting amino acid was lysine. The calculated in vitro PDCAAS (protein digestibility corrected amino acid score) and DIAAS (digestible indispensable amino acid score) were higher for the yellow C05041 cultivar than the brown Bastia, similar to those of wheat, but lower than those of oat proteins. This study demonstrates the feasibility and utility of in vitro human digestion models for the assessment of protein quality for comparison purpose.

Combinatorial Interactions of Essential Oils Enriched with Individual Polyphenols, Polyphenol Mixes, and Plant Extracts: Multi-Antioxidant Systems.

With the aim to develop essential oil (EO) multi-antioxidant systems, combinatorial interactions of selected phenol and terpene-rich EOs (from Pimento Berry, Ceylon Cinnamon, Clove, Sage, White thyme; Oregano) enriched with individual polyphenols, crude plant extracts, and mixtures of their major polyphenols were investigated using single electron transfer (SET)-based DPPH and hydrogen atom transfer (HAT)-based ORAC assays. Polyphenols that enriched Eos the most favorably were rosmarinic acid (IC50 of 0.0891-0.1448 mg enriched EO/mg DPPH; 5772-17,879 µmol TE/g enriched EO) and quercetin (IC50 of 0.0682-0.1060 mg enriched EO/mg DPPH; Trolox Equivalents (TE) of 9776-14,567µmol /g enriched EO), whereas p-coumaric acid (IC50 of 0.1865-1.1424 mg enriched EO/mg DPPH; 7451.00-11,588 µmol TE/g enriched EO) and rutin hydrate (IC50 of 0.1140-0.3112 mg enriched EO/mg DPPH; 2298-6227 µmol TE/g enriched EO) were the least favorable. Enrichments with polyphenol mixes and crude extracts exhibited synergistic and additive effects in the SET-based DPPH assay. In the HAT-based ORAC assay, EO enrichments with crude extracts exhibited more additive effects, as well as less antagonistic effects, than enrichments with their major polyphenol mixes, revealing the significant contributions of minor compounds. EOs enriched with crude green tea and apple extracts exhibited synergistic or additive effects, whereas EOs enriched with grape seed and rosemary extracts exhibited equal antagonistic effects. Predictive models were developed to explain the variability between the observed and predicted antioxidant activities of enriched EOs.

Discovery and Enzymatic Screening of Genome-Mined Microbial Levanases to Produce Second-Generation ß-(2,6)-Fructooligosaccharides: Catalytic Properties.

Evidence suggests that ß-(2,6)-levan-type fructooligosaccharides (FOSs) possess higher prebiotic potential and selectivity than their ß-(2,1)-inulin-type counterparts. The focus of the present work was to develop an enzymatic approach for the synthesis of levan-type FOSs, employing levanases (EC 3.2.1.65), specifically those performing endo-hydrolysis on levans. To identify new levanases, a selection of candidates was obtained via in silico exploration of the levanase family biodiversity through a sequence-driven approach. A collection of 113 candidates was screened according to their specific activities on low- and high-molecular-weight (MW) levan as well as thermal stability. The most active levanases were able to hydrolyze both types of levan with similar efficiency. This ultimately revealed 10 active, highly evolutionary distant and diverse candidate levanases, which demonstrated preferential hydrolysis of levan over inulin. The end-product profile differed significantly depending on levanase with levanbiose, levantriose, and levantetraose being the major FOSs. Among them, the catalytic properties of 5 selected potential new levanases (LEV9 from Belliella Baltica, LEV36 from Dyadobacter fermentans, LEV37 from Capnocytophaga ochracea, LEV79 from Vibrio natriegens, LEV91 from Paenarthrobacter aurescens) were characterized, especially in terms of pH and temperature profiles, thermal stability, and kinetic parameters. The identification of these novel levanases is expected to contribute to the production of levan-type FOSs with properties surpassing those of commercial preparations.

Extraction and Characterization of Cocoa Bean Shell Cell Wall Polysaccharides.

Cocoa bean shells (CBS), a by-product of the cocoa industry, from two cacao varieties and obtained after selected processing conditions (fermentation, drying, roasting) were characterized in terms of their chemical composition, where they were found to be a great source of carbohydrates, specifically dietary fiber, protein, ash, and polyphenols, namely quercetin, epicatechin, and catechin. Cell wall polysaccharides were isolated by alkaline extraction (0.5 M or 4 M KOH) and were found to be enriched primarily in pectic polysaccharides (80.6-86%) namely rhamnogalacturonan and arabinogalactan as well as hemi- cellulosic polysaccharides (13.9-19.4%). Overall, 0.5 M KOH polysaccharides were favored having provided a diverse profile of neutral sugars and uronic acids. When tested for the promotion of the growth of selected probiotic strains, CBS cell wall polysaccharides performed similarly or more than inulin and rhamnogalacturonan based on the prebiotic activity scores. The short-chain fatty acid profiles were characterized by high amounts of lactic acid, followed by acetic and propionic acid.

Exploring the synergistic effects of essential oil and plant extract combinations to extend the shelf life and the sensory acceptance of meat products: multi-antioxidant systems.

To develop multi-antioxidant systems for the preservation of meat products, mixtures of essential oils or plant extracts were investigated for their antioxidant interactions. The combinatorial study revealed that the chemical diversity of both major and minor components of these ingredients contributed to the antioxidant interactions. A shift from antagonistic or additive interaction to synergistic one was achieved by modulating the ratio of mono-components of multi-antioxidant systems. Mixtures containing oregano/thyme (25/50 of IC50), thyme/clove (25/100) and thyme/cinnamon (50/25) oils as well as cranberry/rosemary (25/25), cranberry/green tea (25/25), cranberry/apple (25/25), rosemary/apple (50/25) and grapeseed/cranberry (50/50) extracts have shown synergistic antioxidant effects. Among the investigated systems, thyme/clove oils and oregano/thyme oils/grape-seed extract systems have extended, in situ, the shelf-life of chicken and ground pork products stored at 4 °C by 2 to 4 folds. The sensory acceptability of treated samples was rated to be moderately better than control. This study lays the ground for the development of efficient natural multi-antioxidant systems. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-022-05653-4.

Cocoa bean shells: a review into the chemical profile, the bioactivity and the biotransformation to enhance their potential applications in foods.

During processing, cocoa bean shells (CBS) are de-hulled from the bean and discarded as waste. Undermined by its chemical and bioactive composition, CBS is abundant in dietary fiber and phenolic compounds that may serve the valorization purpose of this by-product material into prebiotic and functional ingredients. In addition, the cell-wall components of CBS can be combined through enzymatic feruloylation to obtain feruloylated oligo- and polysaccharides (FOs), further enhancing the techno-functional properties. FOs have attracted scientific attention due to their prebiotic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant functions inherent to their structural features. This review covers the chemical and bioactive compositions of CBS as well as their modifications upon cocoa processing. Physical, chemical, and enzymatic approaches to extract and bio-transform bioactive components from the cell wall matrix of CBS were also discussed. Although nonspecific to CBS, studies were compiled to investigate efforts done to extract and produce feruloylated oligo- and polysaccharides from the cell wall materials.

Antifungal activity of lactic acid bacteria and their application in food biopreservation.

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are ubiquitous bacteria associated with spontaneous lactic fermentation of vegetables, dairy and meat products. They are generally recognized as safe (GRAS), and they are involved in transformation of probiotic lacto-fermented foods, highly desired for their nutraceutical properties. The antifungal activity is one of the exciting properties of LAB, because of its possible application in food bio-preservation, as alternative to chemical preservatives. Many recent research works have been developed on antifungal activity of LAB, and they demonstrate their capacity to produce various antifungal compounds, (i.e. organic acids, PLA, proteinaceous compounds, peptides, cyclic dipeptides, fatty acids, and other compounds), of different properties (hydrophilic, hydrophobic and amphiphilic). The effectiveness of LAB in controlling spoilage and pathogenic fungi, demonstrated in different agricultural and food products, can be due to the synergistic effect between their antifungal compounds of different properties; where the amphiphilic-compounds allow the contact between the target microbial cell (hydrophilic compartment) and antifungal hydrophobic-compounds. Further studies on the interaction between compounds of these three properties are to de be developed, in order to highlight more their mechanism of action, and make LAB more profitable in improving shelf life and nutraceutical properties of foods.

Health Beneficial Bioactivities of Faba Bean Gastrointestinal (In Vitro) Digestate in Comparison to Soybean and Pea.

Faba beans are a promising emerging plant-based protein source to be used as a quality alternative to peas and soy. In this study, the potential health beneficial activities of three Canadian faba bean varieties (Fabelle, Malik and Snowbird) were investigated after in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and compared to two commonly used legumes (peas and soy). The results revealed that the faba beans had a higher antioxidant activity than peas when assessed with the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and the 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) assays, except for the Fabelle variety. In the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and the iron chelating assays, the faba beans had a lower antioxidant activity than soy. Interestingly, Fabelle and Snowbird showed a higher antioxidant effect than the peas and soy at the cellular level. The antihypertensive properties of Fabelle and Malik varieties were significantly higher than peas but lower than soy. The in vitro antidiabetic activity was higher for soy, but no differences were found at the cellular level. The faba bean peptides were further fractionated and sequenced by mass spectrometry. Eleven peptides with in silico predicted bioactivities were successfully identified in the faba bean digestate and support validating the health-promoting properties of peptides. The results demonstrate the bioactive potential of faba beans as a health-promoting food ingredient against non-communicable diseases.

Characterization of antimicrobial compounds obtained from the potential probiotic Lactiplantibacillus plantarum S61 and their application as a biopreservative agent.

This work aimed to characterize the antimicrobial compounds obtained from the potential probiotic Lactiplantibacillus plantarum S61, isolated from traditional fermented green olive, involved in their activity against fungi and bacteria responsible for food spoilage and poisonings. Their application as a biopreservative agent was also investigated. The culture of L. plantarum S61 showed substantial antifungal and antibacterial activity against yeasts (Rhodotorula glutinis and Candida pelliculosa), molds (Penicillium digitatum, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum, and Rhizopus oryzae), and pathogenic bacteria (Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 19,117, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica ATCC 14,028, Staphylococcus aureus subsp. aureus ATCC 6538, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 49,189), with inhibition zones > 10 mm. Likewise, the cell-free supernatant (CFS) of L. plantarum S61 showed an essential inhibitory effect against fungi and bacteria, with inhibition diameters of 12.25-22.05 mm and 16.95-17.25 mm, respectively. The CFS inhibited molds' biomass and mycelium growth, with inhibition ranges of 63.18-83.64% and 22.57-38.93%, respectively. The antifungal activity of the CFS was stable during 4 weeks of storage at 25 °C, while it gradually decreased during storage at 4 °C. Several antimicrobial compounds were evidenced in the CFS of L. plantarum S61, including organic acids, ethanol, hydrogen peroxide, diacetyl, proteins, and fatty acids. The protein fraction, purified by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), demonstrated important antifungal activity, in relation to the fraction with molecular weight between 2 and 6 kDa. L. plantarum S61 and its CFS, tested in apple and orange fruit biopreservation, demonstrated their protective effect against P. digitatum spoilage. The CFS exhibited effectiveness in reducing Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica ATCC 14,028 in apple juice. L. plantarum S61 and/or its bioactive compounds CFS represent a promising strategy for biocontrol against pathogens and spoilage microorganisms in the agro-industry.

Combining the mechanical ball milling of the carbohydrate and the use of low solvent reaction media for the synthesis of fructose fatty acid esters by immobilized lipases.

Synthesis of carbohydrate fatty acid esters catalyzed by immobilized lipases is a pathway to obtain specific isomers from renewable feedstock, compared to unselective chemical esterification. While the use of low-solvent reaction media (≤ 10 %) offers advantages, the interactive effects of these media with biocatalysts and substrates should be modulated towards high catalytic efficiency and substrate availability. Among the investigated co-solvents, tert-butanol and DMSO in a mixture of lauric acid substrate/co-solvent (90/10; v/v) resulted in high bioconversion yields using either Novozym® 435 or Lipozyme® RM IM, as biocatalysts. Increased hydrophobicity of the Novozym® 435 immobilization support favored bioconversion, while polar substrate surface area enlargement by ball-milling improved productivity through enhancement of fructose availability. A compromise between bioconversion yield (19.7 %) and productivity (9.45 µmol/L min) was obtained in the reactions catalyzed by Novozym® 435 using ball-milled fructose at a concentration of 0.2 mol/L. Combining mechanical ball-milling of the substrates with low-solvent reaction media is expected to enhance and expand enzymatic synthesis of carbohydrate fatty acid esters.

Faba Bean: An Untapped Source of Quality Plant Proteins and Bioactives.

Faba beans are emerging as sustainable quality plant protein sources, with the potential to help meet the growing global demand for more nutritious and healthy foods. The faba bean, in addition to its high protein content and well-balanced amino acid profile, contains bioactive constituents with health-enhancing properties, including bioactive peptides, phenolic compounds, GABA, and L-DOPA. Faba bean peptides released after gastrointestinal digestion have shown antioxidant, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, cholesterol-lowering, and anti-inflammatory effects, indicating a strong potential for this legume crop to be used as a functional food to help face the increasing incidences of non-communicable diseases. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the current body of knowledge on the nutritional and biofunctional qualities of faba beans, with a particular focus on protein-derived bioactive peptides and how they are affected by food processing. It further covers the adverse health effects of faba beans associated with the presence of anti-nutrients and potential allergens, and it outlines research gaps and needs.

Emulsion, hydrogel and emulgel systems and novel applications in cannabinoid delivery: a review.

Emulsions, hydrogels and emulgels have attracted a high interest as tools for the delivery of poorly soluble hydrophobic nutraceuticals by enhancing their stability and bioavailability. This review provides an overview of these delivery systems, their unique qualities and their interactions with the human gastrointestinal system. The modulation of the various delivery systems to enhance the bioavailability and modify the release profile of bioactive encapsulates is highlighted. The application of the delivery systems in the delivery of cannabinoids is also discussed. With the recent increase of cannabis legalization across North America, there is much interest in developing cannabis edibles which can provide a consistent dose of cannabinoids per portion with a rapid time of onset. Indeed, the long time of onset of psychoactive effects and varied metabolic responses to these products result in a high risk of severe intoxication due to overconsumption. Sophisticated emulsion or hydrogel-based delivery systems are one potential tool to achieve this goal. To date, there is a lack of evidence linking specific classes of delivery systems with their pharmacokinetic profiles in humans. More research is needed to directly compare different classes of delivery systems for the gastrointestinal delivery of cannabinoids.